After sending his joyful final letter to the church at Corinth, Paul set out for Greece, where he stayed three months (see Acts 20:2, 3). Acts recounts neither his preaching nor his literary activity in Greece; but in all probability it was during this period, about a.d. 56-57, that Paul composed his longest and perhaps most carefully tailored letter, the Epistle to the Romans.
Scholars differ as to the original length and recipient of Romans because of certain difficulties in the text as we have it. While 1:7 addresses only the church at Rome, the last chapter lists many personal greetings from the apostle—improbable remarks for a church as yet unvisited by Paul. Chapter 16 also has greetings for Priscilla and Aquila, and for Epaenetus, the first convert of Asia, all of whom most commentators believe to have been living in Ephesus when Romans was written. In addition, a number of apparently separate benedictions are found from 15:33 to the letter's end.
One popular explanation for these features suggests the letter originally was written to the Roman church, but also circulated among various other churches, with appropriately different salutations added by Paul. Chapter 16 (as we have it) may be a compilation of salutations and benedictions from various copies, words Christians naturally would have been eager to preserve.
Whether or not one accepts the circular letter theory, there is little doubt the apostle wrote this epistle to the Roman church. Acts 19:21 and Rom. 1:13 witness to Paul's longing to visit Rome. While it is sometimes argued Romans was written mainly for Gentile Christians, the letter clearly reflects Paul's deep concern over Judaism and its relation to Christianity. His ministry often had encountered hounding resistance from Jews and Jewish Christians—sometimes threatening his life. At Damascus he narrowly escaped death at the hands of Jews. At Antioch and Jerusalem Jews fiercely resisted his position that Gentile Christians be exempt from the Hebrew rite of circumcision. Controversy over Judaism among Paul's Galatian converts precipitated his writing them an epistle of warning and rebuke. Moreover, the Judaizing party at Corinth fostered false practices that the apostle frankly condemned to the Corinthians in his "stern letter" of II Cor. 10-13.
However, Paul had no little respect for the Hebrew religion. Raised as a Pharisee, he held the Hebrew Scriptures to be of great importance, quoting them frequently in his letters. Paul's preaching in synagogues (despite frequent expulsions) is evidence of sincere desire to embrace those of his own nation. Based on his vast experience, Paul was now to set forth his most thorough evaluation of the relation of Judaism to Christianity. Despite the complexities involved, he reached the conviction of Rom.1:16: that the true Gospel transcends barriers between "Jewish" and "non-Jewish" —as the very "power of God unto salvation to every one that believeth; to the Jew first, and also to the Greek."
Having said this, Paul demonstrates how existing systems had signally failed to achieve salvation for men. Chapter 1:18-32 may be aimed primarily against depraved conduct characteristic of Gentiles uninformed by the ideals of Jewish monotheism. Warning that the wrath of God is revealed against such unrighteousness, he especially condemns offenders who knew of God's power as reflected in His creation. In self-righteousness and vanity men had exchanged the glory of the immortal God for the likeness of corruptible men and creatures.
No doubt Jews would have applauded such remarks, but Paul proceeds in Chapter 2 to address anyone inclined to sit in judgment on the abuses of mankind. Making it clear divine judgment is universal and impartial, Paul leads into his full discussion of Judaism (see 2:12 to 3:8). God's judgment upon Gentile sins was certain; but merely being a Jew, "under law," was not a flat guarantee of being true to its precepts. So also the converse: non-Jews, formally without the law of Moses, could conceivably lead good lives, thus becoming "a law unto themselves," with law inscribed upon their hearts. Even circumcision, the rite so highly valued by Judaism, was meaningless without inner sincerity.
Judaism was indeed blessed with "the oracles of God." Yet, as with Gentiles, the Jews had not achieved salvation. "There is none righteous, no, not one" (3:10). Deeds of obedience to law could not save from sin; law brings knowledge of sin.
However, 3:21-30 brings news of a universal salvation now revealed apart from the law. It is "the righteousness of God," received through faith in Christ Jesus (apart from works of the law), and for all who have faith, whether Greek or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised.
It is helpful here to examine the terms of Paul's general idea, "justified by faith." The Greek verb "to justify" is related to the noun rendered "righteousness" in the King James Version. "To justify" can mean "to make righteous," or "to show justice" (to someone), "to acquit" (in a legal sense), "to treat as just," or even "to set free." One possible translation of "justified," then, might read: "being made righteous."
Also, the Greek noun "faith" has such meanings as faithfulness, trust, confidence, or belief. Sometimes translators render "faith" as "a conviction of the truth" (of something). The reader himself must decide how he is to translate "justified by faith"; but one rendering might be: "we are made righteous by conviction of the truth."
To illustrate righteousness of faith, Romans 4 turns to Abraham. Quoting the Greek version of Gen.15:6, Paul cites Abraham's faith in God, which was counted (that is "credited") to him as righteousness. Thus for Paul, only through divine grace received through faith, not through merit of personal deeds, is salvation found.
The results of the new justification are expressed in Chapter 5: peace with God, access by faith into divine grace, the hope of the glory of God. Even tribulation could now be seen as a source of rejoicing, giving rise to patience, experience (or tested character), hope, and the love of God. Speaking of the universality of the new righteousness, Paul portrays Christ Jesus as the antithesis of Adam. If Adam is regarded as the figure through whom sin was inaugurated, so through Christ Jesus came total deliverance from sin.
The discussion of baptism and the analogies of servitude and marriage in Chapter 6 further explain Christian newness of life and freedom from the law. However, Paul in Chapter 7 still characterizes the law as "holy, and just, and good"—even "spiritual" (vv. 12, 14), for through the law sin was clearly defined. In this context comes the apostle's famous discussion of the strife between his ideals and the actions that sin misdirected against his will. His cry "Who shall deliver me ...?" (v. 24) receives the answer of Chapter 8. The spirit of life in Christ Jesus displaced the law of sin and death. The "carnal mind" opposes God, but now God's spirit dwelt in Christians, bringing proofs that they were God's children.
Chapter 8 includes some of St. Paul's most inspired statements. Tribulations notwithstanding, he foresaw a far greater "glory which shall be revealed in us" (v. 18), and that for those who love God "all things work together for good" (v. 28). The chapter concludes that indeed nothing can separate Christians "from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord" (v. 39).
